The US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey looked at self-reported coffee drinking by more than 40,000 adults between 1999 and 2018. Participants noted both their daily intake and when they drank the beverage. Thirty-six percent were morning coffee drinkers, whereas 16% imbibed later in the day. The data suggested that, over the 10 years, moderate or heavy coffee drinkers were, respectively 16 and 31%, less likely to die from any cause or a cardiovascular disease than non-coffee drinkers. These statistical benefits, however, only applied to morning coffee drinkers (https://www.theguardian.com/food/2025/jan/08/coffee-drinkers-reap-health-boost-but-only-if-they-do-it-in-the-morning). At face value, this study suggests that having coffee with your breakfast is a healthy option. It has, however, a number of limitations. Firstly, it's based on self-reported intake and folk are notoriously bad at doing this accurately (especially for an extended period). Secondly, even when controlling subjects for age and gender, morning coffee drinkers may differ from counterparts drinking later in the day. The groups could vary in their alcohol intake, levels of daily exercise and even the stressfulness of their occupations. Finally, its not absolutely certain, what's meant by a 'cup of coffee'. Does decaffeinated count? Mugs also contain more fluid than a standard cup. Different coffees even have varied caffeine (and other chemical) contents, making it difficult to specify an active factor.
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