Molecular Origami

Proteins make up 50% of the dry mass of living tissues. Scientists know of the existence of about 200 million different proteins. The shape of a protein is determined by the folding of its necklace-like chain of bonded amino acids, using their variable side-chains. Four kinds of interaction (hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges and hydrophobic twists) produce the protein's 3-dimensional shape, which determines its activity (e.g. as acting as an enzyme or a hormone). It is possible for biochemists to establish the 3-D shape of a protein but this is a laborious, time-consuming process. Step into the ring, DeepMind, a computer known largely for its success in games against humans such as chess and Go. The computer has now been 'trained', using 70,000 proteins whose shapes are known, to develop algorithms which can predict the 3-D arrangement of any protein (https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/nov/30/deepmind-ai-cracks-50-year-old-problem-of-biology-research ). This is effectively solves a challenge for Biology that has been around for 50 years. People are suggesting that the new knowledge produced should enable scientists to tease apart the mechanisms underpining some diseases, design medicines, develop more nutritious crops and even produce enzymes that can break down plastics. This seems to be a better use of Artificial Intelligence than playing games.

Sensible Celebrities?

It is suggested that the NHS (is it really that organisation or a government nudge group?) will use 'sensible celebrities', who are 'known and loved', in a drive to encourage Covid vaccine take-up. (https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/nov/29/nhs-enlist-sensible-celebrities-coronavirus-vaccine-take-up). I would argue, that you can't be a celebrity without being known and there's a strong probability (whatever your weird characteristics?) that someone will 'love' you. A difficulty is, that 'influencers' (people with lots of 'hits' and 'shares' from their online activities) are, reportedly, the biggest disseminators of antivaxxer sentiments. Singer, Madonna and actor, Woody Harelson have both been recently criticised for their support of the rubbish claims, linking Covid-19 to the mobile 5G system. Suggestions that members of the British Royal Family would all be trustworthy are also highly debatable (Prince Andrew?). Nobody (certainly not me) could object to Marcus Rashford who has also been suggested. He seems, however, to have enough on his plate and, I suspect, would not claim to be expert on vaccines. There is a danger of any campaign of this nature resulting in a matching our 'sensible celebrities' against your 'weirdos'. I think the advice would be better coming from Doctors.

Inquest on Air?

It will be a landmark decision, if the inquest of 9 year-old Ella Kissi-Debrah rules that 'toxic' levels of atmospheric nitrogen dioxide were a factor in her death, in 2013. ( https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/30/landmark-inquest-to-rule-if-air-pollution-killed-london-pupil). Ella was asthmatic and lived near London's South Circular road. It is clear that the levels of this pollutant from vehicular exhausts, exceeded legal limits. The UK government had signed up to 'safe' values of air pollution. If the coroner decides the gas played a role, ministers (and others?) might well be accountable.

Adding Ecocide?

A group of International lawyers have been convened by an organisation (the Stop Ecocide Foundation) to determine whether the criminal destruction of the world's ecosystems can be added, like genocide, to the list of prescribed actions (https://www.theguardian.com/law/2020/nov/30/international-lawyers-draft-plan-to-criminalise-ecosystem-destruction). The idea has been enthusiastically supported by a number of small, island nations (including Vanuatu and the Maldives) which might well disappear with climate change. Some encouragement has also been offered by the French and Belgian (but not, currently, the UK) governments. I suspect that it's not going to be easy to a) define precisely what ecocide is (much of current farming, extraction of hydrochemicals or even running an airline might come into consideration if certain definitions prevailed) and b) get the idea adopted by larger nations (they generally operate under the assumption that 'their land' is theirs to do as they like). We should clearly not forget damage to the planet's oceans but it might well be harder to identify a miscreant in those cases. Presumably, any laws could not be retrospective or the Victorian British might be ontrial for starting the Industrial Revolution. I do think that there are serious issues here. However, distinguishing between activities which cause 'allowable' damage to ecosystems from those (e.g. destruction of the Brazilian rainforest) that strike a majority of people as clearly reprehensible, is not going to be easy. After that, getting the 'ecocriminals' to court and extracting meaningful penalties (that put right the damage?) is also going to be hard.

Meanwhile, Down on the Farm

It is generally acknowledged that the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been a disaster for biodiversity. CAP essentially awards subsidies to farmers solely on the basis of their land area. In England, 70% of the land surface is given up to farming and a few, very rich folk (including the Queen and James Dyson) cream off most of the £1.6bn of subsidies (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/30/environment-to-benefit-from-biggest-farming-shake-up-in-50-years). Post-Brexit, the UK government claims, they will alter the basis of subsidies, so that environmental issues, such as increasing biodiversity, play a much bigger role. Megafarms largely reduce the range of species by concentrating on monocultures, with their attendant herbicides and insecticides. One of the reasons why military training land is biodiverse, is that it excludes farming. There remain some areas of concern. The plan says little about how money will help maintain 'wild areas' on holdings like moorland and salt water bogs (that, formerly, tended to be converted into low grade farmland). It also a bit worrying to read, that the intention is to eventually aim for agricultural subsidies (of any kind) to be phased out. The initial redirecting of the £1.6bn is also going to be unhelpful, if we end up with improved land management in the UK, only to have land (and animal welfare?) degradation in 'foreign' locations. This would inevitably materialise, if the current obsession with 'trade deals at any price', resulted in UK farmers being undercut by cheap imports. We might end up with a 'green and pleasant land', whilst we feast on chlorinated chicken and hormone-treated beef.

Vaccine Wars: All Quiet on the Eastern Front

China seems to be using its technical abilities in a form of 'vaccine diplomacy'. It appears to hope, that this will restore the damage caused by its perceived tardy response to the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic and the making of some shoddy personal protective equipment (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/29/china-hopes-vaccine-diplomacy-will-restore-its-image-and-boost-its-influence). China appears to have a 3-pronged approach. Firstly, it has 5 vaccines undergoing testing but a shortage of people infected with the virus in China. The Chinese are consequently conducting the required mandatory testing on their vaccines in trading partner countries with major outbreaks (Brazil, Indonesia and Turkey), with mutual benefits. Secondly, they are getting kudos by entering into agreements to preferentially supply trading partners with validated vaccines (and the means of making them theirselves). For example, they have promised that 6 million doses of CoronaVac (made by Sinovac) will reach Brazil by January. Thirdly, they have promised to help finance the obtaining of vaccines by countries that cannot afford the outlay. They have also (unlike the USA, which seems to have been intent on buying up vaccine only for its own population) joined the scheme to distribute vaccines to the less developed parts of the world. This is needed, if Sars-CoV-2 is to be actually eradicated from the world stage. The policy seems astute, as it is likely to cement China's position as a world leader in technology and trading. The 'Silk Road' appears to be rising again.

Climate Change and Having Kids

A relatively small study of 600 (atypical?) people, between the ages of 27 and 45, has been carried out by a Dr Schneider-Mayerson of Yale-NUS College in Singapore. All the individuals were 'already factoring climate concerns into their reproductive choices' (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/27/climate-apocalypse-fears-stopping-people-having-children-study). The group was self-selected, lived in the US, were largely white, more highly educated and liberal (all from the University?). Some 'dry' concerns about the life-time carbon footprint of each child were expressed. The vast majority of the respondents appeared, however, to be more concerned about the welfare of their children in a climate-changed world. In deed, some were choosing not to have children, as they feared leaving them to struggle in a dying world. This illustrates how environmental considerations can impact upon people. It would be of interest to know whether the impact of climate change fears varies in different cohorts (including religions and political affiliations) of folk.

This Avian 'Flu Just Flies By

It's amazing how things change. The last time avian flu hit the UK, there was real panic about its ability to, not only decimate wild and domesticated bird stocks, but its potential to infect human populations. If I remember rightly, stocks of antiferon drugs (these reduce the ability of viruses to spread to neighbouring cells) were expensively acquired. They were eventually little-used and only have a short shelflife. We now have another full-blown outbreak of the H5N8 strain. It is killing wild birds (like swans, buzzards, geese and curlews) and infecting farmed chickens in Cheshire, Herefordshire, Kent and Leicestershire. This has resulted in the setting up of a biosecurity zone across England, Scotland and Wales (https://www.gov.uk/government/news/avian-influenza-bird-flu-national-prevention-zone-declared). This strain seems to pose little danger to humans but, it could well be, that smaller wild bird species are dying in numbers (they are simply less obvious, when infected, than birds like swans and geese). Avian 'flu is also, in the current times, much less newsworthy than Covid-19, so it hardly gets a mention. Bird 'flut does, however, have parallels that are not a million miles from the 'human' virus on which all of our attention is focused.

Vaccine Wars: The Empire Strikes Back 2

More bizarre activity, with a report of a plan by a Britich government group, attempting to have the Union flag displayed on the packaging for the Oxford/AstraZeneca Covid-19 vaccine (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/nov/27/no-10-reportedly-wanted-union-flag-on-oxford-coronavirus-vaccine-kits). The wheeze was apparently intended to counter enthusiasms for Scottish independence but it's entirely the wrong type of message to attempt to send out. I expect that, at least a few of the people involved in producing and testing the vaccine, were not British nationals (science tends to be a multi-national collective activity). Nationalistic messages should have no place in medical developments (but we are seeing an increased tendency for this kind of thing).

Pomme Bomb?

It's always nice to discover something new. Because it's new, however, does't always mean it's going to be useful. There is an excitable story about runner, Archie Thomas, coming across a new apple variety whilst training in the Nadder valley in Wiltshire (https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/nov/28/new-variety-of-apple-discovered-by-wiltshire-runner0. It seems likely that the variety is a hybrid between a cultivated apple (probably from a discarded apple core) and a European crab apple (a wild species). Every hybrid between these two apples is, however, going to be different. Apples grown commercially are cultivars, where a stem is grafted on to a root stock (people like their apples to be consistent). Cutivars will only be produced, when the variety has real commercial potential. The description of the fruit characteristics of Thomas's find unfortunately don't suggest it is different enough to be worth the effort and expense.

These Are a Few of My Unfavourite Things

I appreciate that the 'photo opportunity' is a venerable institution. It is, however, a lazy option. I find myself getting increasing incensed by politicians 'dressing up' as scientists, Bob the Builder, millitary tank drivers or waiters in restaurants. It wouldn't matter too much, if they looked half-way convincing in their selected roles. The politicos generally look, however, like fancy dress wearers on a pub crawl. The above incarnation is one of the very worst. Donning a white lab coat and demonstrating a total lack of physical competence with pipetting equipment, says nothing at all about the requirements of science. I wouldn't have employed such a 'cack-handed' individual in any laboratory that I have ran.

Pretty Little Sting?

I must admit to have never been enthusiastic about the 'Black Friday' phenomenon. I suspect that this is because it seemed too much like hypercommercialism. I prefer to buy things when I think I need them (rather than when dictated to do so by the calender). Black Friday also seems to provide lots of opportunities for con-merchants and scammers. I was even more irritated than usual, however, by the news that Pretty Little Things had had a 99% off sale of clothing and shoes. (https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/nov/27/critics-slam-pretty-little-things-8p-black-friday-dress-deal). Apparently, Pretty Little Things were offering dresses at, as little as 8p, and high-heeled shoes at 25p. Reportedly, one customer purchased more than 50 items (I wonder how frequently each dress will be worn?). This comes, precisely at a time, when people are being encouraged to turn away from 'fast fashion', on environmental grounds. One also suspects that the workers who generated these items were not exactly over-paid. I like Black Friday even less.

Your Age and Your Vaccine

Covid-19 is much more deadily, when infecting the elderly,than in younger age groups. The fact that the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine 'only' gives 62% protection, when given as 2 full doses a month apart, has led some people to suggest we might have to use several vaccines to treat the different age cohorts. For the immediate future, some of the most vulnerable people, may need a more potent vaccine. (https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/nov/27/different-age-groups-may-get-different-covid-vaccines-experts-say). As noted previously, the 90% protection by the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine was only achieved, when giving a half dose followed by a full dose. This was seen, however, in a small sample and included nobody over the age of 55. It is planned to repeat the half dose followed by a full dose regime, globally with a wide range of ages but this will take time. Until it is completed, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) cannot be certain it will work in older people. Oxford/AstraZeneca are pressing ahead with getting the 2 full dose regime version approved by the MHRA. 62% doesn't sound as impressive as 90% but a vaccine doesn't have to totally block infection to be of benefit. The vaccinations used for seasonal influenza are not near 100% effective but they reduce the probability of serious disease and hospitalisation. The same appears true for the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine. I really don't see the need to over-complicate things.

Bristol Zoo Down the Loo?

Another victim of Covid-19 has been the 185 year-old Bristol Zoo. The zoo has had a prime location in Clifton (near the suspension bridge) and has been much involved in educational and conservation programmes. The pandemic-associated losses in finance have mean't, however, that the entire zoo is relocating to what was their satellite site (The Wild Place Project) near the M5 motorway. I do hope they flourish in this location, as they have been an excellent teaching resource for me over the decades.

Vaccine Wars: The Empire Strikes Back?

Things are getting nasty in the Vaccine Wars (I suppose this is predictable when prestige and finance are both involved). First, there were suggestions that Russia's Sputnik vaccine hadn't been properly tested and its subjects coerced into participation. Now, we have attacks on the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine. (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/26/scrutiny-grows-over-oxford-universityastrazeneca-vaccine). This vaccine is cheaper than its current rivals and doesn't need special refrigeration before use. It could consequently be seen as a danger to their sales. The basic gripe surrounds the observation that a 'small trial' (with less than 3000 UK subjects) involved the 'accidental' giving of a half dose, followed later by a full dose of the vaccine. This resulted in more than 90% protection (comparable to the Pfizer vaccine). The much bigger 'major trial', with subjects in more diverse range of countries, resulted in circa 62% protection (which is quite adequate as anything better than 50% is regarded as viable). There is no easy scientific explanation for these differences in protection. I suspect that the 'small trial' was entirely accidental (the experimenters realised they had got the first dose wrong but decided to analyse the results anyway). Getting the dose wrong, is certainly not a good 'look'in any medical trial. There is also the problem that the 'small trial' (which is going to be repeated in a new global trial) had no subjects over the age of 55. The main study suggested that the vaccine works on all age groups (including mature folk like myself) but that can't be assumed from the 'small trial'. I do think that the Oxford/AstraZeneca team were ill-advised to make so much of the half dose-followed by a full dose finding. It would have been better to regard it as a pilot study. I think, however, that claims the team 'embellished' their results are over the top. And I really don't know what to make of an Investor analyst's claim that "we believe that this product (the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine) will never be licensed in the US". It was, however, sufficient to cause a fall in AstraZeneca's share price.

Be Nice to Antivaxxers?

Behavioural strategist, Will Hanmer-Lloyd, makes a lot of sense, when advocating techniques for dealing with people who are likely to resist attempts to get them to agree to be vaccinated against Sars-CoV-2 (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/nov/26/heres-how-to-tackle-the-covid-19-anti-vaxxers). I agree that calling them 'stupid' and/or making vaccination mandatory are unlikely to work. I don't think that people who are unlikely to present themselves for vaccination are a uniform group. They include, at one extreme, antivaxxer conspiracy theorists (some with vested interests in perpetuating antagonisms to vaccination) and, at the other end of the spectrum, cautious vaccine reluctants, who would prefer to 'wait and see how it goes, first'. Hanmer-Lloyd rightly points to the problem of confirmation bias (where people with entrenched views actively seek reasons for supporting it or reasons for rejecting alternatives). He also points out, that you can generate a backfire effect, when entrenched views are demonised. Hanmer-Lloyd's solution is to get GP's, and others, to carefully and respectfully explain the benefits of vaccination. He also suggests they should point to where the 'vaccine reluctant' can get information for themselves (trusting them to self-educate?). He clearly feels that persuading people to emulate their peers is likely to prove effective (people opting in rather than opting out of programmes). All very sensible but a few problems remain. They include the urgent need to get a high uptake of vaccination to achieve anything like 'herd immunity' (a 20% refusal rate would be terminal). GP's (and others) will also be very busy (with the vaccination programme and other medical issues). I am uncertain that they will have the time (or patience?) to cajole the vaccine reluctant. Finally, some of the people who are likely to resist vaccination, will simply ignore all the regular routes of information about the potential benefits (to themselves and to society). They essentially live in their own alternative electronic media-driven worlds (but are still driven to advocate their beliefs to others). I don't think that getting a 90-95% uptake of vaccination is going to be, at all, easy.

The Autumn leaves of Red and Gold

It had been hoped, that global warming would delay the onset of Autumn in our forests but a recent study suggests that trees actually drop their leaves earlier (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/26/climate-crisis-making-autumn-leaves-fall-earlier-study-finds). This results in the trees storing less carbon. So, planting trees will have less impact in terms of removing atmospheric carbon dioxide. It has been estimated that the early dropping of leaves, means that annually 1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide less will be stored in trees. It calls into doubt the rather simplistic idea that, planting more trees, will reverse the effects of climate change.

There's Not Much Point in Measuring Stuff Unless You Use the Data Do Intelligent Things With Policy?

A number of my friends (old, recycled academics, like myself) have pointed out that the media, surrounding the Covid-19 pandemic, tends to be full of numbers (about how many tests have been carried out, people from different age cohorts dying within 28 days of a positive Covid test, guestimates of the incidences of asymptomatic and 'Long-Covid' patients, likelihoods of people honestly self-isolating etc etc). What seems to be (at least comparatively) lacking is clear input from Operational Research (OR) experts. So, data appears to be collected by scientists and medics but the decisions on what to do about the findings, seems to be largely determined by politicians. If one looks hard enough, there are some examples of OR being involved in Covid-19 decision making. For example, Applied Research Collaboration for the SW Peninsula, has a number of projects aiming to support the NHS through operational research (https://www.arc-swp.nihr.ac.uk/research/supporting-nhs-or). The focus is on medicine but limited to Devon and the surrounding area. Projects include "Using intelligent sample pooling to increase the UK Covid-19 screening capacity" and "Modelling to support a Covid-19 screening 'super-lab'". Is all this going on in the background of UK-wide deliberations or do the politicians feel they don't need (or even wellcome?) input from OR specialists? One certainly sees very little about this type of expertise in the media. Never mind the quality, feel the width?

Sampling Tsunami

From October 1st, the UK banned single use plastics but this was limited to plastic straws, stirrers and cotton buds. 'A Plastic Planet' is a coalition of environmentalists and business folk who would like to go further. They have focused attention on yet another avoidable source of single use, plastic pollution (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/26/campaigners-call-for-uk-and-eu-bans-on-plastic-sample-sachets). A Plastic Planet estimate that 122bn single-use plastic sachets (and mini bottles?) are given out per year (in the UK or in the EU?), largely by the personal and home care industries. They are sometimes distributed for pure 'convenience' and at other times as marketing exercises to encourage people to buy the larger retailed versions. Sachets and mini bottles can contain hand wipes, vinegar, toothpaste, shampoo, brown sauce, ketchup etc, etc. The coalition would like these items also banned by both the UK and the EU, as such packaging is rarely recycled (they are often regarded as too small to bother with). Discarded sachets, tiny bottles and sample tubes, however, certainly add to plastic waste. I broadly support this idea but would caution that there are some medical and testing situations, where sachets are unavoidable (otherwise, possibilities of cross-infections exist). I think that, if the laws are changed, appropriate uses should be specified and arrangements made to collect and recycle the debris from such activities (rather than to simply dump it).

Seeing the Changes 1506

Fungi in a damp Loughor garden.

Third Wave?

I know it is likely to result in my being labelled as a 'grinch' in some quarters but I will admit to being concerned (along with several scientists on the Sage committee) about the UK government wheeze for the Christmas period (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/25/uk-scientists-warn-third-wave-covid-after-christmas). The 4-nation 'plan' appears to be to allow up to 3 households, from anywhere in the UK, to meet in their houses over 5-6 days (with the dates specified) of the festive season. Like the dissenting scientists, I think that this is a recipe for a 3rd wave of Covid-19 infections, that could very well overwealm the hospitals. It will be difficult to ensure that participants are from 3 households and festivities involve people sitting for long periods inside, in close proximity (facilitating transmission). There have already been complaints about why Christmas should be treated differently from the religious ceremonies of other groups and why the Scots can't have hogmanay? Some activities outside the 5-6 day period are likely (in the same way that 'bonfire night' extends between 30th October and 10th November). Fuel has already been added to viral transmission by moves to help foreign travel and to facilitate students returning from University to their homes. Christmas is likely to be the cherry on the cake! I would be much happier if people maintained a careful lifestyle until vaccination programmes have been completed (in time for Easter?) but I'm not selling anything!

Bushtucker 'Trials'?

One of the favourite items on 'I'm a Celebrity: Get Me Out of Here!' appears to be trials involving 'creepy-crawlies'. Here, contestants have to do tasks, whilst having thousands of cockroaches, spiders and maggots poured on to their bodies. The ITV series is normally filmed in the Australian jungle but the Covid-19 pandemic has resulted in the location being moved, for 2020, to a castle in North Wales. Various people, including myself and the Welsh naturalist, Iolo Williams, have worried out the possibility of some of the alien invertebrates escaping and becoming invasive species. This is now being reportedly investigated by the Welsh police (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/24/welsh-police-investigate-im-a-celebrity-non-native-species-aoe). ITV claim that they only use invertebrate species, which have been cultivated as animal food. They haven't specified what species are used in the trials. They also claim that, as the trials take place in an enclosed area, escape is unlikely (but a few cockroach egg cases, on a contestant, is all that is needed to achieve this). They also maintain that the species used are 'non-invasive' (but it's difficult to be sure of this in a presumably heated castle). I don't know why they can't use native species, like the plentiful woodlouse. It will be interesting to hear what the police investigation reveals. There appears, thus far, to have been no comment about live, vertebrate animals (protected under UK law), being mistreated by being forced into apparatus with 'celebrities'.

Vaccine 'Wars'?

Details of Russia's Sputnik vaccine for Covid-19 have started to emerge (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/24/russia-says-data-on-sputnik-covid-vaccine-shows-95-efficacy). Details are not always clear but it is claimed that it has a 95% efficieny in protecting against infection (comparable to the Pfizer version). It is also claimed that its effectiveness is partially due to using 2 (rather than 1) human adenovirus as vectors (details of which, they claim, they are happy to pass on to the Oxford/AstraZeneca team). Treatment will reportedly require 2 shots of the vaccine and it will retail at about $10 per dose. Some people are concerned that the Russian authorities licenced Sputnik before its mandatory stage 3 trials had been completed. More fuss is already developing around Hungary's interest in using this vaccine. Medications are not supposed to be used generally in the EU, before they have been formally approved by the European Medicines Agency (recently moved to the Netherlands from London). Everyone is keen to get safe and effective vaccines to (hopefully) eradicate Covid-19. It is clearly evident, however, that developing and marketing vaccines is also driven by:- a) national prestige (our science is better than your science!), b) ability to influence the world's regard for the country of origin and c) effectiveness in attracting an awful lot of foreign finance (it's a global market).

And Just To Add to the Second Coming?

I noted in my previous post that the plan to facilitate travel (by ferry, plane or train) into the UK, by requiring travellers to complete a Passenger Locator Form is distinctly problematic. The trace part of 'Test and Trace' has never worked well and I don't see the tracers being any more effective at keeping tabs on travellers, dispersing themselves to all corners of the Union. Giving passengers the option of paying for a Covid-19 test, in the hope that it is negative and allows them to reduce quarantine from 14 to 5 days is also dodgy. All, except the rather lengthy PCR test, have modest reliabilities (with false negatives and false positives). All these issues, however, apply 'with knobs on' to the plan to safely return University students to their homes for Christmas, in the middle of the second Covid-19 wave. Most students are intended to get a Covid-19 test before leaving their campus. All these tests, however, will certainly be the less reliable, quick versions. Although leaving is generally intended to be 'staggered', thousands of young people (probably including some with a mild or asymptomatic infection?) will be dispersing all over the country. They will largely travel by public transport, drive in groups in cars or be collected, also in cars, by their parents. They will breathe together (not all will wear facemasks?) for extended periods (perfect conditions for viral transmission). Tracking where they all go, would be a nightmare but, I suspect, that nobody is going to even attempt this. Once the students get home, they are going to want to see friends and relatives (and they might well be exchanging more than presents). Because of weather conditions, most of their meetings are likely to be indoors. And the whole process will be repeated, when they return to University in January! The 'R' value could rocket, well before the vaccination programmes are underway.

Trains and Planes and Automobiles

I must admit to being less than enthusiastic about the UK's attempts to boost travel into the country by plane, ferry or train, by cutting the time required for self-isolation following taking a test (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/24/test-to-release-cut-england-travel-quarantine-five-days). This reduction to 5 days (from 14) is, apparently, irrespective of the rate of Covid-19 transmission, in the location they are coming from. Travellers will all have to fill out a passenger locator form but I'm wondering how vigorously this will be checked. They can then elect to privately pay between £65-£120 for a test which, if it proves negative, will result in release from quarantine within 5 days. This seems like a 'get out clause' for relatively rich folk or people travelling at their company's expense. It has, naturally, been welcomed by the airlines. A further concern is that the tests are, by no stretch of the imagination, 100% accurate (many of the tests don't register at all, unless the viral load is relatively high). A scheme like this, might be appropriate, once the vaccination programme has started. I think, however, like the earlier unmonitored returns of people from skiing holidays in Northern Italy (January/February, 2020) and the travel to and from 'safe' foreign holiday locations (this summer), speeding quarantine to help travel companies, might well result in further surges in the pandemic. If that is the case, it's precisely at a time when the population of the UK is at its most vulnerable.

Food Production Monopoly?

A recent study has shown that, since the 1980s, the control of the world's farming land has become more and more concentrated in fewer and fewer hands (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/24/farmland-inequality-is-rising-around-the-world-finds-report). We are now in a situation, where 70% of the world's entire stock of crop fields, ranches and orchards, is dominated by 1% of the agricultural businesses. This domination is both by direct ownership and by contract farming (where the process is sub-contracted to farm managers who are expected to follow the directives of the owners). The downside, is that this results in the widespead use of destructive monocultures (these are prone to disease) and fewer carefully-tended small holdings. Agrobusiness can have powerful impacts on climate change by e.g. encouraging deforestation in some parts of the world and rearing lots of cattle that burp methane (a potent 'greenhouse gas'). It is also powerfully impacted by climate change, as land becomes unusable in some locations and has to be 'replaced'. It seems a tad dangerous to put much of the world's food production into the hands of a few major companies, driven only by the immediate profit motive. This has been one of the long-voiced criticisms of the EU's Common Agricultural Policy, which allocates money on the basis of the total area farmed.

Prognosis 'Poor'?

There has been lots of optimistic comment about how the Covid-19 pandemic has reduced atmospheric polluting events, by largely closing down air travel and reducing industrial activity. In spite of this, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has noted that the upward trend of carbon dioxide in the air in 2020, has continued its inexorable rise (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/23/climate-crisis-co2-hits-new-record-despite-covid-19-lockdowns). Measurements are routinely taken on remote mountain tops on Hawaii's Big Island and in Tasmania. WMO describe any pandemic-related decline in this 'greenhouse gas', as being a 'tiny blip' and 'less than the natural fluctuation' that is generally seen. And people can't wait to get back on planes and to 'restart' their economies! The omens don't look good.

Seeing the Changes 1505

A Common shrew (Sorex araneus) came a cropper in the cyclepath at Bynea.

A Pseudo-'Which Report' on Covid-19 Vaccines

Details of the first three reputable Covid-19 vaccines are now available for comparison. All 3, can achieve 90% or better protection (in the case of the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine, after a half dose, followed by a full dose) and all are given by intramuscular injections. All appear active in all age groups, including older cohorts who have less vigorous immune systems (and are more likely to be seriously endangered by a Covid-19 infection). Side-effects seem pretty minimal for all 3 vaccines, being mainly limited to sore arms, occasional headaches and fatigue. Obviously, we have no idea, at present, how long protection lasts and only patchy information about whether the vaccines can prevent asymptomatic transmission of the virus is available. The Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna vaccines are both based on novel synthetic mRNA technology. This short-lasting molecule (it's rapidly broken down by enzymes in our bodies) is delivered using lipid (fatty) nanoparticles and causes the cells to produce the harmless spike proteins found on the coronavirus (the spike proteins help the virus enter the cell but do not cause disease). The cells then, produce antibodies to these. The Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine is produced in a more traditional (but still innovative) fashion, by loading a non-replicating version of a Chimpanzee cold virus with genes for Covid-19 spike protein production. Antibodies are again produced in response to the manufactured spike protein. Both the Oxford/AstraZeneca and the Moderna vaccines are stable in standard refrigerators (between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius) for at least a month, whereas the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine requires storage (prior to use) down to between -70 and -80 degrees. That will make the Pfizer/BioNTech more difficult to distribute. It is unclear how many shots of the vaccine will be needed but it is likely to be 2, in the case of the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine. In terms of cost, Oxford/AstraZeneca; Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna vaccines come in at $3-4, $20 and $25 per shot. Of course, we won't get choices over which vaccine, we are eventually offered. I personally hope uptake is good, in spite of unhelpful antivaxx messages and natural human caution. I would like to 'see the back' of Covid-19 (which would mean eliminating it from all world populations). This exercise does, however, make a (less-pleasurable?) change from comparing champaignes from different supermarkets!

One Swallow Doesn't Make a Spring (Or Any Other Season)?

Swallows generally fly into the UK in Spring, feed up on flying insects and raise several broods of young. in September, they normally gather and migrate back to South Africa to over-winter. The migration is arduous and the birds have to feed on flies etc as they fly. There are many casualties en route. Changing weather patterens have caused these birds to arrive much earlier than 50 years ago. It has also been noted that some 'stragglers' are now starting their migrations much later in October. There is now a report of a Swallow that has remained in the UK in November (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/22/one-little-straggler-the-swallow-that-didnt-fly-south-for-the-winter). I don't think that that this represents a trend towards ceasing the migration and staying in the UK. The chances of any Swallow surviving a winter here, without flying insects on which to feed, is extremely remote. Single birds, starting a very late exodus, would also be doomed. Swallow populations are declining and the currently very variable weather patterns appear to be one potential cause.

Novelty No Protection From Plastic?

A new black sand beach (consisting of small fragments of lava) was created by the eruption of the Hawaiian Big Island volcano of Kilauea in 2018 (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/05/newborn-hawaii-beach-already-polluted-with-plastic/?cmpid=org=ngp::mc=crm-email::src=ngp::cmp=editorial::add=Compass_20201121&rid=FE3832908123A963FB7A467BD75D4FAD). Pohoiki beach is already polluted with microplastics. There appears to be no place that microplastics can't go! The plastics primate strikes again!

'Essential' Christmas Trees

The 'lockdown' rules in England have been hurriedly modified with specialist Christmas tree sellers, as well as farms and stalls that also offer this traditional embellishment, being reclassified as 'essential retailers' (https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/nov/22/christmas-tree-sellers-allowed-to-reopen-in-england-despite-lockdown). There is some logic in this, as supermarkets and garden centres (already open as 'essential retailers') are selling cut trees along with all their other goods. Having said that, lockdown is supposed to finish on the 2nd of December, leaving most people a window of opportunity to get a tree (if they, in deed, regard having one as 'essential'). I may be going into Scrooge mode but does nobody else find the obsession with 'Christmas at any cost' a tad bizarre? It seems that we are likely to rapidly undo any gains made in reducing Covid-19 transmission, by our desire to spend, spend, spend and carry on. We might have more than a hangover after Christmas.

The Power of 'Pure' Research

My recent post about Katalin Kariko and the development of mRNA as a basis for vaccines, effective against Covid-19 (they also seem to have potential to treat a wide range of other medical conditions), reminded me that I have not heard anyone else recently singing the benefits of pure research. Pure research is research undertaken on the basis of interest and a desire to understand the world around us. It is not (at least initially) directed to particular applications. There are many cases of interest-associated research providing insights, that later prove to be very important. The standard example is Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin (the first antibiotic), postulated when a mould contaminated the agar plates on which he was growing bacteria in a hospital laboratory. Antibiotics are now a precious resource (challenged by the development of antibiotic-resistant 'superbugs', explicable on the basis of Charles Darwin's pure research), used to treat bacterial infections, that would often have proved fatal in earlier times. Bioluminescence (the ability of some living organisms, such as fungi, fire-flies and deep sea animals, to produce chemical light) has now been used in medicine to e.g. illuminate the progression of cancer cells and to do biochemical measurements in the body. Other recent posts, provide topical illustrations of how pure research can benefit humankind, in its hour of need, with respect to vaccines. The Horseshoe crab's production of limulus amoebocyte lysate, enables vaccine producers to ensure their product doesn't contain contaminant endotoxins (poisons produced by bacteria). The squalene produced by deep-sea sharks can increase the effectiveness of some vaccines. We never know what problems we will end up facing as a species. Curiosity-driven research is important as it often gives us options that, without it, would not be available. Having said that, it's rare for the pure scientist (see, again, the example of Fleming) to become rich, on the basis of their ground-breaking discoveries. Kariko might well prove an exception.

Funny How Science Works

The story of Katalin Kariko nicely illustrates how chance or serendipity plays a major role in scientific development (https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/nov/21/covid-vaccine-technology-pioneer-i-never-doubted-it-would-work). She was born, 65 years ago, in Hungary where she became interested in synthesizing Ribonucleic acid (RNA), at the University of Szeged. In 1985, Kariko received an invitation to work at Temple University in Philadelphia (USA). She left Hungary with her husband, her toddler daughter and £900 hidden inside a teddy bear (from the blackmarket sale of their car). In 1989, Kariko moved to the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine where she became convinced, on the basis of animal work, that synthetic Messenger-RNA (mRNA) could be a safe and reliable route for the development of vaccines. In 1998, she was joined by Drew Weissman, who was then working on HIV. They collaborated and, in 2005, discovered that they could prevent an inflammatory side-effect of injected mRNA by tweaking one of the molecule's nucleosides. As is usual, their paper got little attention at the time and their attempt to set up a company to develop mRNA in medical treatments, failed due to a lack of funding. Canadian stem cell biologist, Derrick Rossi, read their paper and got the funding to set up a Biotech company. This became Moderna in Cambridge, Massachusets. Kariko had lots of invitations and elected, in 2013, to join BioNTech, as their senior vice-President and Head of Protein Replacement therapies. In 2020, the world had the Covid-19 pandemic. The first two vaccines to be developed at the end of that same year were based on mRNA. They were from BioNTech and Moderna. mRNA only needs to cross the plasma membrane (and not the nuclear membrane) of the immune cells to trigger the production of protein identical to that in the harmless virus spikes. This protein triggers the immune response safely (it cannot be contaminated with actual virus). The treatment also does not trigger the Major Histocompatibility Complex and the mRNA is rapidly broken down after producing its action. Some people are now saying that Kariko and Weissman should get the Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

Mountain High

Having already been located in the deepest depths of the oceans, microplastics have now been recorded a few 100 m from the 8850 m peak of mount Everest (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/20/microplastic-pollution-found-near-summit-of-mount-everest). The pollutant was recorded in snow samples at every level from 5300 to 8440 m. Microplastics (presumably, blown by the wind and largely emanating from road traffic) have also been found on the peaks of the Swiss Alpes and the French Pyranees. If there is one thing that humans are really good at, it's polluting every far corner of the planet (from the lowest to the highest)! There is no such thing as 'pristine'.

A Poplar Move?

The Poplar Harca organisation, in East London, is planning to create 1000 new homes in their area. They are consulting with architect, Dinah Bornat, who specialises in asking young people what they think about proposed developments (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/19/nobody-asks-us-kids-the-youth-led-approach-to-improving-uk-streets). She has started, by asking 6th formers from local schools, what they would like to get from the streets serving the development. 'Kids' are rarely asked how they would like to travel, play and congregate on in their areas, in spite of being directly in intimate contact with the location. Most seem to feel that the streets are insufficiently safe for walking and cycling to school, let alone for play. It is hoped that the consultation will lead to streets being more pedestrian- rather than car-centred.

I'm a Celebrity Get Those Aliens Out of Here!

Like Iolo Williams, I am somewhat worried about aspects of the 2020 series of 'I'm a Celebrity Get Me Out of Here' (https://www.radiotimes.com/news/tv/2020-11-15/im-a-celebrity-returns-cliff-bug-news/). Because of the Covid-19 pandemic, it has been transposed, from the Australian rainforest, to Gwrych castle in North Wales. He are assured that it includes all the 'well-loved' tasks with creepy-crawlies etc (which I have never liked, especially for the carnage inflicted on the beasties). Many of the organisms being used in the programme, are species alien to the UK, so what are the Environmental Agencies of Wales doing to ensure that none of them escape into the 'wild'? We have had enough problems with alien introductions. One might also ask whether animal welfare issues have been properly assessed. Snakes also feature in some tasks. These animals are vertebrates and have legal protections from cruelty. People (even celebrities) crawling into 'vaults' with them for the entertainment of TV audiences is surely stressful. I thought we were tougher on animal welfare than the Australians!

Liking the Lichen

Lichens (symbiotic fusions between fungi and cyanobacteria and/or algae) are especially found on trees and have long been used as monitors of air pollution. The National Trust is being applauded for attempting to 'rescue' a rare English lichen, Lungwort (Lobaria pulmonaria) marooned on a fallen Oak in Borrowdale (https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/nov/20/national-trust-rescue-rare-english-lichen-lungwort). The lichen shown is a relative, rather than the real thing. The Lungwort is being transplanted from the Oak to about 6 healthy trees in this area of the Lake District. This is a sensible thing to do but it is, afterall, only low intensity gardening.

Squirming For Ermine?

Ermine (the winter coat of the Short-tailed weasel Mustela erminea) is a status symbol of the UK aristocracy and a relative of the Mink (Mustela vison). All Mustellids (badgers, stoats, weasels, mink, ferrets and polecats) appear very susceptible to infection by the Covid-19 virus. This is especially so, when such animals are 'farmed' (they are then crowded and have close contact with handlers). There was great concern when a mutant strain (cluster 5) of Sars-CoV-2 was identified in farmed Danish mink, especially when this was passed to human handlers in the North of the country. The concern was that this variant might negate the vaccine development to treat the form of Covid-19 infecting most humans. After a great deal of fuss, the 17 million mink in Denmark were culled, on human health grounds (https://www.rt.com/news/507188-denmark-extinct-mink-covid19-strain/). As the Danish government apparently didn't have the legal authority to order the cull, the Food and Agriculture Minister has resigned. It has now been stated that cluster 5 may be extinct. It has not been recorded in Danes since September 15th (if so, that might be a close shave). Mutant strains of the Covid-19 virus have also been found, however, in mink in the Faroe Islands, the Netherlands, Russia, South Africa, Switzerland and the USA. Culls are also being carried out in some (not all) of these countries. Mink farming may well pose a danger to any attempt to deal with the Covid-19 pandemic. It might be an idea to dispense with it entirely?

Run Forest!

Forests are, to some extent, the lungs of the planet. In 2014, 50 countries and 50 of the world's biggest companies backed a declaration to reduce deforestation by 50% by this present year and to end such destruction by 2030 (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/19/megaprojects-risk-pushing-forests-past-tipping-point-report). The 2020 target was missed and deforestation is actually increasing. It is noted that around 1500 large mines (50% of the total) are located in forests. The mines are concerned with the extraction of coal, minerals and metals. Many of these are in South America, S-E Asia and Central Africa, where monitoring and regulation can be difficult. Operation of the mines often involves the driving of thousands of miles of roads and railways, deep into the forests. There is a rising concern that this activity, if unchecked, will push forests past tipping points, where they effectively auto-destruct and become scrubland.

'Throwing Weight Behind Something' Isn't the Same as Doing!

Plastic pollution (especially in the oceans) is a real concern and, perhaps, deserves a similar attention as climate change. It has been predicted that, at the present rate of increase, the amount of regular sized and micro-plastics entering the seas will triple by 2025. There will be predictable, wide-ranging negative effects on the species inhabiting them (and on eaters of fish?). In terms of platic dumping, the USA and the UK occupy positions 1 and 2 (I am not sure whether this takes into account, microplastics from motor vehicles but that would make them even worse) . I get somewhat irritated then, when Lord Goldsmith in a Zoom meeting with the Global Plastic Action Partnership, goes into self-congratulatory mode about the UK 'throwing its weight' behind a new global agreement to tackle the plastic pollution crisis (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/19/uk-to-support-plans-for-new-global-treaty-to-turn-tide-on-plastic-pollution). It is important to note, that neither the US (predictably, at the moment) nor the UK (represented by Goldsmith) have yet pledged their support for the agreement. As they say, "The road to hell is paved with good intentions". Action, rather than throwing one's weight about is needed at the moment.

Sex and Sars- CoV-2

I remember, doing studies years ago, when became clear that sex hormones had significant influences on the antibody responses produced by laboratory mice after challenge with Sheep Red Blood cells (SRBC). So it comes as no surprise to find that the immunological responses of male and female patients to a Sars-CoV-2 infection differ (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/18/covid-19-antibodies-fall-faster-in-men-than-women-study-suggests). Circulating antibody levels fell significantly more quickly in males (who are also twice as likely to die from the viral infection) than in females. This can be regarded as yet another refuting of the 'one size suits all' type of thinking that has been too pervasive in medicine. The observation has even led to suggestions that vaccines might produce different effects in men and women. Males might require booster doses for full protection. It should not be forgotten, however, that the immune system is quite complex. Although levels of circulating antibodies might fall, individuals may still be able to mount a rapid response to the virus via primed T- and B-cells (these are the white blood cells that produce antibodies and kill cells infected by the virus). Gender differences are, however, something that should be carefully considered. Are the new vaccines tested on equal numbers of male and female patients, in all age and ethnicity groups?

Seeing the Changes 1504

More fungi from Loughor (they are usually more orange?).

All In It Together?

The announcement of a UK government 10 point, 'green plan' with 250,000 jobs has had a mixed reception (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/17/boris-johnson-announces-10-point-green-plan-with-250000-jobs). The first thing to note is, that the jobs appear to be a 'guestimate' and are unlikely to match the skill sets of many of the people who have lost their occupations in the Covid-19 pandemic. I have already posted on some of the items. I have noted that the phasing out of sales of new petrol and diesel-fueled vehicles by 2030 (but with hybrids being apparently allowed longer) appears too slow to some groups. I have also commented on the plans to annually plant more trees (even though trees are inferior to peatlands as carbon repositories). One might also add that different species of tree vary in their ability to 'fix' carbon. Other points in the plan include a quadrupling of offshore wind power by 2030 (what about land-based wind turbines and solar power?) and exploring hydrogen as a heating/propulsion fuel (water is the waste product). It is also claimed in the plan that £0.5bn will be spent on new, smaller-scale nuclear power (where?), £1bn on improving building (home and public) insulation and £200m on carbon capture (that should be standard for power stations and incineration sites). It is also claimed that the greener energy plans of aviation and shipping will be actively explored (these, I think, tend to be vague and could be easily side-stepped by registration in other countries). There is also an unspecific claim that 'greener' modes of individual (walking and cycling?) and public transport will be 'encouraged'. Finally, it's promised that London will become a 'global centre of green finance' (so no funding of oil, gas and coal anywhere in the world and no accommodating of oligarchs with dodgy money?). It's nice to have a plan but I don't see much about how progress will be monitored. One might say that planning for changes to be evident, by 2030 (2 electoral cycles), is, without annual progress reports, like 'kicking the problem into the long grass'. It should also be self-evident that, the UK making these changes (verging some think on inadequate?), is meaningless unless the other industrialised nations on the planet do the same or better.

Too Little, Too Late?

Although it is reassuring to find the UK government 'talking up' attempts to curb climate change, it is disconcerting that they don't appear to be capable of making the simple calculations on what is actually needed to achieve necessary change. A report from the an organisation called New Automotive, maintains that, the proposed banning of sales of fossil-fueled (petrol and diesel) vehicles by 2030, will be insufficient to meet the UK's legally-binding obligationsa on climate change ( https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/18/uk-ban-on-new-fossil-fuel-vehicles-by-2030-not-enough-to-hit-climate-targets). Cars, of course, will continue to be used for several years (or even decades) after they are sold. New Automotive suggest that either a) sales of fossil-fueled cars and trucks will have to be phased out by 2026, at the latest or b) Other methods will have to be found to reduce overall car use. This also, only relates to the emissions of 'greenhouse gases' as air quality would be still impaired by the shedding of microparticles from the tyres and brake linings of all cars (electric or not).

For Peat's Sake!

The English have not proved to be very successful in preserving their peatlands (https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/nov/17/uk-full-peat-compost-ban-england). It has been estimated, that the UK peatlands store circa 3.2 billion tonnes of carbon, which is more than is stored in all the forests of this 'green and pleasant land'. This means that peatland have a major role to play in curtailling 'greenhouse gases' and subsequent climate change. Strangely, although the UK government is promising to plant 30,000 hectares of trees each year, in its 10-point 'green industrial revolution' plan, it makes no mention of peat bogs. There is currently a voluntary agreement that 'amateur' gardeners will not be sold peat to pot their plants (an activity that is seeing a Covid-19-associated boom). Reportedly, bags of peat remain resolutely on sale in UK garden centres. It is claimed that another voluntary agreement will result in 'commercial' gardeners getting this material by 2030. Quite apart from the distinction between 'amateur' and 'commercial' being somewhat vague (how much do you have to sell to qualify and who checks?), voluntary agreements seem toothless. I think that we need to be much tougher in our protections for peatlands if we want them to help counter climate change.

Dorset to Keep the Lights on in London

The City of London's economic hub has used 'green electricity' since 2018. The area covered includes the Guildhall buildings and Barbican Arts Centre, as well as Billingsgate, Smithfield and Spitalfields markets. A £40m, 15-year deal has been signed with a subsidy-free French company, Voltalia, to take 50% of their required electricity from a 49 megawatt installation in the Dorset countryside (https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/nov/18/city-of-london-buys-into-new-dorset-solar-farm-to-help-power-square-mile). Voltalia's project involves 95,000 solar panels and just shows what can be achieved in terms of switching from non-renewables. Dorset, however, is in South-west England and some distance from London. It's an interesting echo with the past, as much of the stone used to create important buildings in London came from Portland in Dorset. I just wonder whether closer installations would be more energy efficient?

We Need Quitters Amongst the Super Emitters

In 2018, airlines generated an estimated 1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide, whilst paying no carbon taxes (there is no duty on aviation fuel). In deed, the aviation production of 'greenhouse gases' rose by 32% between 2013 and that pre-Covid-19 year (they were also pretty effective in spreading the virus around the globe!). The airlines hope to return to 2018 emission levels by 2024 (which is bad news for people who are hoping for a needed curtailling of climate change). A study has estimated, however, that frequent flyer, 'super emitters' (who make up only 1% of the world population), generated 50% of the 2018 global aviation emissions (https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/nov/17/people-cause-global-aviation-emissions-study-covid-19). US air passengers had, by far, the biggest carbon footprint. I know it's a big and populous country but US emissions exceeded the combined outputs of the next 10 countries on the list (including Australia, Germany, Japan and the UK). So we have a situation where a tiny section of the world's population, is driving climate change, impacting negatively on a majority who rarely (or never) take a plane. I do think that some kind of corrective balance is urgently needed but am unconvinced that the aviation industry can become 'greener' within the needed time frame (in spite of some of their recent claims). I think we have no choice other than to make aviation a less common means of transportation (of people and goods).

Something That Could Cause Vaccines Against Covid-19 Not to 'Stick'?

The bodies of US citizens (and folks from some other countries) commonly contain measureable quantities of manmade per- and polyfluoroalkyls (PFAS). These chemicals are used in non-stick pans, waterproof clothing and even pizza boxes. PFAS have been tentatively linked to a number of medical conditions such as increased liver damage, decreased fertility and even some forms of cancer. The Harvard School of Public Health have pointed out that these chemicals also reduce the effectiveness of certain vaccines (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/17/chemicals-found-in-everyday-products-could-hinder-covid-19-vaccine). Many of the vaccines, being developed to counter the Sars-CoV-2 pandemic, are being successfully tested on US patients. The possibility remains, however, that high concentrations of PFAS might reduce their effectiveness in particular patients. It could become another underlaying 'risk factor'.